Myelination is called the process by which nerve cells are coated with insulation that increases the speed and efficiency of information traveling through the nervous system.
A myelin sheath is created during myelination. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells, which myelinate axons in the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system, respectively, respectively, respectively, respectively, create the myelin that is used to make myelin sheaths. So which cells in the spinal cord create myelin. Oligodendrocytes create this myelin because the spinal cord is an integral aspect of the central nervous system. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have the same function, although they differ architecturally.
The acronym "COPS" can help you remember these cells and their location (Central - Oligodendrocytes, Peripheral - Schwann).
Myelination is the process through which nerve cells are covered with insulation to speed up and improve the efficiency of information transmission across the nervous system. A fatty material called myelin creates a coating around the neuronal axons that makes it possible for electrical impulses to be transmitted more quickly and effectively. A critical step in the growth and upkeep of the nervous system, myelination is crucial for the efficient operation of the motor and sensory systems. The peripheral nervous system's Schwann cells and the central nervous system's oligodendrocytes work together to generate the myelin sheath.
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the apical plasma membranes of simple squamous epithelial cells are often folded into microvilli, which increases their surface area for absorption. True or False
Ribosomal RNA is encoded by portions of the DNA on some chromosomes. The nucleolus is a darkly pigmented region inside the nucleus.
Anatomy of a nucleus?The membrane-enclosed nucleus is just where RNA is synthesised from the chromosomal DNA.
With a microscope, it is easily pigmented and visible. It serves as the hub for all of a cell's operations.
How do chromosomes work?There are typically 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus. Each cell's nucleus contains the chromosome, which is packed into thread-like filaments.
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this is the storage form of glucose in the body. it is stored in liver and muscle tissues.
This is the storage form of glucose in the body. it is stored in liver and muscle tissues. It is called glycogen.
Many glucose molecules joined together in a branching structure make up the complex carbohydrate known as glycogen. It can be converted into glucose when the body needs energy and is stored in the liver and muscle tissues. Glycogenolysis is the process by which glycogen is transformed into glucose, and it is controlled by hormones like glucagon and insulin. Glycogen is a crucial source of energy for the body, particularly while fasting or exercising and blood glucose levels may be low.
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The complete question is:
This is the storage form of glucose in the body. it is stored in liver and muscle tissues. What is this?
what are function loop of henle?
The Henle loop refers to this area of the nephron. Its major job is to reabsorb sodium chloride and water from the filtrate.
The loop of Henle (English: /hnli/) (also known as Henle's loop, Henle loop, nephron loop, or its Latin counterpart ansa nephroni) is the segment of a nephron that connects the proximal convoluted tubule to the distal convoluted tubule in the kidney. The loop of Henle is named for its discoverer, the German anatomist Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle, and its principal function is to establish a concentration gradient in the medulla of the kidney.
The loop of Henle provides a high urea concentration location deep in the medulla, near the papillary duct in the collecting duct system, using a countercurrent multiplier system that utilises electrolyte pumps.
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the breaking apart of an intervertebral disk resulting in a bulge that can put pressure on spinal nerve roots are called?
The rubbery discs between both the vertebrae of the spine are made up of a softer inside (nucleus) and a more robust outer (annulus). When a section of a nuclei pushes through a tear in the annulus.
What results in a disc bulging?As they get older, discs start to show wear and tear. The cartilage of discs stiffens and dehydrates over time. These modifications can lead the outer layer of the disc to protrude rather uniformly the all way around its circumference, giving it the appearance of a hamburger with a bun that is too big.
What does a spine bulge mean?Any part of the spine can develop a herniated disc, but the lower back is where it most frequently does. It is also known as a protruding, bulging, or ruptured disc. It is among the most typical causes of sciatica, leg discomfort, and lower back pain.
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true or false. In the ocean surrounding Antarctica, there are fish that
survive the cold water by using a molecule made of glycoproteins that circulates the blood and keeps it from freezing. Certain kinds of worms that live in the Arctic ocean also make antifreeze proteins that help them live in icy water.
True There are fish that can withstand the chilly water in the oceans surrounding Antarctica by using a glycoprotein-based molecule which circulates your blood and prevents it from freezing.
When related species arise from a single ancestor, how much pattern of evolution results?If two species with comparable environmental requirements have many physical characteristics but have distinct biological progenitors, convergent evolution may have produced these similarities.
Are there any common ancestors among the Galapagos tortoises?Despite having a common ancestor, the Galapagos tortoises have different neck lengths in order to best access the food they require in their environment. Ostriches and elephants both are native to the African savannas. They both possess the same quality.
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A scientist discovers what she thinks is a new species of plant with a taproot system, reticulate veins in its leaves, and five flower petals. which group of plants does this species belong?
With a taproot system, reticulate veins in its leaves, and five flower petals, the plant has what the scientist believes to be a new species. This species of plant belongs to the genus Reticulate Venation.
A plant with a tap root would have leaf venation that is reticulate in nature. The radicle develops into a taproot in angiosperms with two seed leaflets called gymnosperms and dicotyledons. In order to create a taproot system, it develops downward and secondary roots branch off of it laterally.
The taproot may also be used to store food in some plants, such carrots and turnips. Reticulate venation is the term used to describe a kind of venation in which veins begin at the midrib and grow erratically to create a web-like pattern. Dicotyledonous plants typically exhibit reticulate venation.
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Correct Question:
A scientist discovers what she thinks is a new species of plant with a taproot system, reticulate veins in its leaves, and five flower petals. Mention what group of plants does this species belong?
When is fat used as a more efficient fuel?
The energy source that predominates at low power outputs ( 40% VO2max) and delivers significant amounts of energy during intermediate intensity exercise (40-65% VO2max) is fat, which is intended to be a helper fuel during aerobic activity.
Triglycerides, also referred to as triple esters of glycerol, are the primary component of vegetable oils and animal fatty tissue. The phrase frequently excludes oils and just refers to these triglycerides. Moreover, the phrase can be used more broadly to describe any elemental component of biology that is soluble in non-polar solvents but insoluble in water and contains carbon, hydrogen, or oxygen. This phrase can also be used to refer to a number of less well-known nutrients found in a typical human diet, including mono- and diglycerides, phospholipids (like lecithin), sterols (like cholesterol), waxes (like beeswax), and free fatty acids.
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Humans often like to help wild animals survive better. A marine biologist decided to feed Bruce’s pups and placed medicine in the food to prevent the pups from contracting an infectious disease. This helped more of Bruce’s offspring survive into adulthood. Eventually, the marine biologist moved after Bruce’s offspring reached adulthood. On the other hand, Chum’s offspring survived due to an inheritable trait that made them more resistant to infections.
A. Would the medication given from the marine biologist be able to pass down from one generation to the next
B.Would Bruce’s pups or Chum’s pups produce a fitter generation of pups? Explain your answer.
A. The medication given from the marine biologist would not be able to pass down from one generation to the next.
B. Chum’s pups would likely produce a fitter generation of pups because they have an inheritable trait that makes them more resistant to infections, which would give them a survival advantage.
Who is a marine biologist?
This refers to the study of biological oceanography and the fields related to chemical, physical, and geological oceanography to understand marine organisms. Marine biology is a very vast area of study therefore, researchers select a particular area of interest and specialize in it.
Medication is not an inheritable trait and cannot be passed on through genetics. In contrast, Bruce’s pups may not necessarily have an inheritable advantage that would make them fitter. The medication given to them by the marine biologist may have helped them survive, but it would not have passed down to their offspring, so they would not have a genetic advantage.
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What law describes that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of particles at the same pressure and absolute temperature regardless of the nature of gas?
Avogadro's Law describes that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of particles at the same pressure and absolute temperature regardless of the nature of gas
The law that describes that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of particles at the same pressure and absolute temperature, regardless of the nature of gas, is known as Avogadro's Law.
Avogadro's Law states that, for a given mass of an ideal gas kept at a constant pressure and temperature, the volume of the gas is directly proportional to the number of particles (usually measured in moles) in the gas. Mathematically, this can be expressed as V ∝ n, where V is the volume of the gas and n is the number of particles.
This law was first formulated by the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro in 1811, and it played an important role in the development of the kinetic theory of gases and the understanding of the properties of gases.
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"Which statement is true?
A. There are more neurons than glia in the brain.
B. Neurons are all the same shape and size.
C. Some neurons have no axons.
D. Glia are not necessary for normal brain functioning."
Some neurons have no axons. This statement is true. Here option C is the correct answer.
Neurons are the primary cells in the nervous system that are responsible for transmitting information through electrical and chemical signals. They are characterized by a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. Dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory cells, while the axon transmits signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
However, not all neurons have an axon. Some neurons, called interneurons or local circuit neurons, have dendrites that receive signals and transmit signals to other neurons within a local circuit but do not have an axon that projects to distant parts of the nervous system. Other types of neurons, such as sensory neurons, may have a very short axon that does not project far from the cell body.
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Which of the following is responsible for ensuring that each daughter cell in
meiosis receives a complete set of chromosomes?
a) Synapsis
b) Crossing over
c) Homologous chromosomes
d) Spindle fibers
Spindle fibers are responsible for ensuring that each daughter cell in meiosis receives a complete set of chromosomes.
option D.
What controls the transfer of chromosomes in meiosis?During meiosis, spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes and pull them apart, separating the homologous pairs and ensuring that each daughter cell receives one complete set of chromosomes.
Synapsis and crossing over occur during meiosis I and help ensure genetic diversity, but they do not specifically ensure that each daughter cell receives a complete set of chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes also pair up during meiosis I and undergo crossing over, but again, they do not specifically ensure that each daughter cell receives a complete set of chromosomes.
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what is the role of aminoacyl-trna synthetase in protein synthesis?
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is an enzyme that binds amino acids to their corresponding tRNA molecules, which are key components of the process of protein synthesis.
In the first step of protein synthesis, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase enzyme attaches the correct amino acid to its tRNA, which is then brought to the ribosome for the start codon.
During this process, the ribosome is able to decipher the genetic code contained in mRNA, allowing for the appropriate sequence of amino acids to form the protein. The enzyme is essential to the formation of proteins and the overall process of protein synthesis.
The role of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase in protein synthesis is to attach the correct amino acid to its corresponding tRNA molecule. This is a crucial step in the process of protein synthesis, as it ensures that the correct amino acid is added to the growing protein chain.
During protein synthesis, the genetic code in the mRNA molecule is read in groups of three nucleotides, called codons. Each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid. The aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase enzyme recognizes the codon and attaches the corresponding amino acid to the tRNA molecule.
The tRNA molecule then carries the amino acid to the ribosome, where it is added to the growing protein chain.
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What is the BEST action that people can take to help slow the acidification of oceans?
A.
stop eating fish and shellfish
B.
stop using so much fossil fuel
C.
breed resistant varieties of coral
D.
conduct more climate research
Stopping using so much fossil fuel is the best action that people can take to help slow the acidification of oceans, hence option B is correct.
What is the acidification of oceans?It is the decrease in the pH level of the ocean due to carbon dioxide release in the atmosphere, which is uptake by the ocean and causes the ocean s water to become acidic.
Burning of fossil fuels causes more carbon dioxide to be released into the atmosphere that is dissolved in the ocean making it acidic, higher amount of CO₂ lowers the pH of ocean water.
Therefore, the acidification of oceans can be reduced by reducing the use of fossil fuels.
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Repeating sequence of events in eukaryotes that involves cell growth and nuclear division; consists of the stages G1, S, G2, and M.Choose matching term1secondary oocyte2cell cycle3apoptosis4life cycle
2.cell cycle. The repeating sequence of events in eukaryotes that involves cell growth and nuclear division is called the cell cycle.
The cell cycle consists of four stages, namely G1, S, G2, and M. During G1 phase, the cell grows and prepares for DNA synthesis. The S phase is where DNA replication occurs, and the G2 phase is where the cell undergoes further growth and prepares for mitosis. Finally, the M phase is where nuclear division occurs, and the cell divides into two daughter cells. The cell cycle is essential for growth, development, and tissue repair in multicellular organisms. It is tightly regulated to ensure proper cell division and prevent the development of abnormal cells that could lead to diseases such as cancer.
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What is a protein that binds to an operator and inhibits transcription?
In the absence of an inducer, the operator gene's binding to a repressor protein inhibits the operon's structural genes from being transcribed.
In biology, what is transcription?Watch your pronunciation. The biological procedure by which a cell creates an RNA copy of a portion of DNA. The genetic material required to generate proteins in a cell is carried by this copy of RNA, known as messenger RNA (mRNA).
What does "transcription" mean?You might have received a voicemail and needed to write down the message. Or perhaps you typed down your class notes neatly and later reworked them to aid in your review. These illustrations demonstrate how information is rewritten during the transcribing process.
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What's bruise formed by collection of blood at the puncture site
A hematoma was a swelled or elevated region at the site of venipuncture brought on by blood seeping into the tissues.
After a blood draw, bruises are a common occurrence. A bruise often goes away within a few days. But occasionally a bump can serve as a warning indicator. When a blood artery is injured, blood leaks into the tissue beneath your skin, resulting in a bruise. A hematoma was a swelled or elevated region at the site of venipuncture brought on by blood seeping into the tissues. Blood clots typically result in a coloration that is darker than surrounding skin. The medical name for bruises is ecchymosis. Bruises resemble a dark mark on your skin.
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Is phospholipid bilayer the same as cell membrane?
The cell membrane is composed of two layers of phospholipid molecules, but also contains other macromolecules such as membrane proteins, and carbohydrates.
The lipid bilayer (also known as the phospholipid bilayer) is a thin polar membrane composed of two layers of lipid molecules. These membranes are flat sheets that surround all cells in a continuous barrier. Almost all animals and many viruses have lipid bilayer cell membranes, as do the nuclear membrane encircling the cell nucleus and the membranes of the cell's membrane-bound organelles.
The lipid bilayer acts as a barrier, keeping ions, proteins, and other molecules where they are needed and preventing them from diffusing into locations they should not be.
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The fish in a certain population average 10 millimeters in length. Imagine that a population of predatory birds arrives in the area, but they cannot eat fish longer than 15 millimeters. After many, if the fish average 14 millimeters in length, what probably happened?
A. There was a stabilizing selection for fish length.
B. There was disruptive selection for fish length.
C. The fish and the predator coevolved.
D. The presence of the predator causd mutation for larger fish to occur.
E. There was directional selection for fish length.
There was directional selection for fish length was happened. Directional selection occurs when individuals with traits on one side of the mean survive or reproduce more than those on the other. option e)
What is directional selection give an example?Directional selection is a type of natural selection in which extreme variants of a trait are favored over intermediate variants. This results in the shifting of the population's trait distribution in the direction of the extreme variants. An example of directional selection is the evolution of the finches in the Galapagos Islands, in which the finches with longer beaks were able to feed on larger seeds, giving them an advantage in survival and reproduction.
The presence of the predator caused the fish to evolve longer lengths in order to avoid being eaten. This resulted in the fish population average increasing from 10 millimeters to 14 millimeters. Directional selection is the process of natural selection that occurs when a trait is favored and the population average shifts in the direction of that trait.
Therefore, option (e) There was directional selection for fish length is the correct answer.
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how are sister chromatids connected to each other?
The centromere, a constrictive area of the chromosome, is where the two "sister" chromatids are linked.Spindle fibers that are attached to the centromere pull their sister chromatids to a opposing sides of the cell during cell division.
How are sister chromatids able to remain paired?The sister chromosomes are held together by a protein complex called cohesin that forms a ring around the DNA and is conserved from single-celled creatures to humans.
How do sister chromatids develop?When identical chromatids are fused at the centromere, sister chromatids are created.Twin sister chromatids are all in contact with one another at the centromere, which is a constrictive area.
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Please can someone help me?
Answer:
23
Explanation:
because i just learned it two weeks ago
True/false: the zona pellucida is formed as the follicle becomes a secondary follicle.
It is true that the zona pellucida is an extracellular matrix that surrounds the oocyte (immature egg) and is formed as the follicle develops from a primary follicle to a secondary follicle.
What is follicle?In biology, a follicle is a small, spherical structure that contains an egg (or oocyte) and is found in the ovaries of female animals, including humans. Follicles develop in the ovary in response to hormonal signals, and each follicle contains a single immature egg that has the potential to develop into a mature egg that can be fertilized by a sperm. During the menstrual cycle, follicles grow and mature in response to the hormones estrogen and luteinizing hormone (LH) until one dominant follicle is selected to release a mature egg during ovulation. The remaining follicles will typically degenerate. In assisted reproductive technology (ART), multiple follicles can be stimulated to grow and develop using hormonal medications, in order to increase the chances of obtaining multiple eggs for fertilization.
Here,
The zona pellucida is initially formed by the oocyte itself, but as the follicle grows, the granulosa cells surrounding the oocyte also contribute to its formation.
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True or False: the enzyme lactase speeds up the break down of lactose into what 2 smaller monosaccharides
Lactose, the substrate, is converted into glucose and galactose with the help of the enzyme lactase.
What is the product of lactose digestion?If your digestive tract doesn't generate enough lactase, an enzyme needed to break down milk sugar, you develop lactose intolerance (lactose). Normally, lactase breaks down milk sugar into glucose and galactose, two simple sugars that are taken into the bloodstream via the gut mucosa.
Which enzyme converts lactose to glucose?Foods include lactose, which lactase breaks down so that your body can take in it. Lactose intolerant individuals experience unpleasant sensations after consuming milk and milk products. Gas, diarrhoea, and bloating are some of these symptoms.
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Characteristics used to describe a substance are called
Answer:physical properties
Explanation:
how bruise formed by collection of blood at the puncture site?
A bruise occurs when a blood vessel is damaged and blood escapes into the towel under your skin. The pooling of blood causes a abrasion that's generally darker than the girding skin.
Blood collects in the capillaries and leaks out sluggishly to beget the characteristic black- and-blue( or grandiloquent) mark. A bruise may also form if medical professionals fail to apply enough pressure to a needle when withdrawing it from a tone. This companion discusses why bruises appear after blood birth and how to reduce the chance of bruising. During blood delineation, a phlebotomist inserts a small concave needle into the tone in your arm to remove a blood sample. This temporarily damages the blood vessel wall filling, causing blood from the damaged tone to settle under the skin.
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If you started with a 125g sample of u-235, how much of the sample would be remaining after 3 half-lives and how many years would have passed?.
An exponential function is defined as a function whose value is a constant raised to the power of an argument is called an exponential function.
Exponential functions are commonly used in the biological sciences to model the amount of a particular quantity being modeled, such as population size, over time. Graphs of experimental data are usually drawn with time on the x-axis and the quantity on the y-axis.
Half-life (t½) is the time required for a quantity of substance to reduce to half of its initial value.
[tex]\begin{aligned}& N(t)=N_0\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^{\frac{t}{1 / i 2}} \\& N(t)=N_0 2^{-\frac{1}{t_1 / 2}} \\& N(t)=N_0 e^{-\frac{t}{t}} \\& N(t)=N_0 e^{-\lambda t}\end{aligned}[/tex]
where:
N0 is the initial quantity of the substance that will decay.
N(t) is the quantity that still remains and has not yet decayed after a time t
t½ is the half-life of the decaying quantity,
τ is a positive number called the mean lifetime of the decaying quantity,
λ is a positive number called the decay constant of the decaying quantity.
Starting with a 125g sample of U-235.
U-235 has a half-life of 704 million years, which means that every 704 million years, half of the remaining U-235 will have decayed. After three half-lives or 3 x 704 million years = 2112 million years, 1/2 x 1/2 x 1/2 = 1/8 of the original sample will remain.
So, if you started with a 125g sample of U-235, after 2100 million years, 125g x 1/8 = 15.625g would remain.
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which of these phrases most aptly describes "muscle insertion"?A) broad tendon sheet B) connective tissue that surrounds a single muscle fiber C) tendon attachment that doesn't move D) tendon attachment that moves
tendon attachment that doesn't move most aptly describes "muscle insertion".
What is muscle insertion?Muscle insertion refers to the point where a muscle attaches to a bone or other structure, typically via a tendon. The attachment point is usually located at the distal end of the muscle, which is the end that is farthest from the center of the body.
The insertion point is responsible for transmitting the force generated by the muscle to the bone, which allows for movement at the joint.
The shape and location of the insertion point can affect the strength and range of motion of the joint.
For example, a longer insertion point can provide greater leverage and therefore greater strength, while a shorter insertion point may allow for greater range of motion.
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Which of these does NOT provide evidence for the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts and prokaryotic endosymbionts?
- The way that chloroplasts and mitochondria reproduce.
- The structure of the chromosome in chloroplasts and mitochondria.
- The size of chloroplasts and mitochondria.
- All of the above provide evidence that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as prokaryotic endosymbionts of eukaryotic cells.
Option d) All of the above provide evidence that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as prokaryotic endosymbionts of eukaryotic cells.
A mitochondrion is an organelle that may be found in the cells of the majority of eukaryotes, including animals, plants, and fungi. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is produced by aerobic respiration in mitochondria and used as a source of chemical energy throughout the cell, is produced by mitochondria using their double membrane structure.
They were found in the voluntary muscles of insects by Albert von Kölliker in 1857. Carl Benda first used the word "mitochondrion" in 1898. The phrase "powerhouse of the cell" was popularized by Philip Siekevitz in a 1957 essay of the same name and is often used to refer to the mitochondrion.
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What does delivers oxygenated blood and other nutrients to body cells?
The circulatory system delivers oxygenated blood and other nutrients to body cells.
What is blood?The circulatory system is a network of blood vessels that includes the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. The heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body's organs and tissues through the arteries, which branch into smaller arterioles and eventually into capillaries. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels and are responsible for the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products between the blood and the body's cells. Oxygen and nutrients diffuse from the capillaries into the surrounding tissues, while waste products, such as carbon dioxide, diffuse from the tissues into the capillaries. After exchanging materials with the cells, the blood returns to the heart through the veins, which merge into larger venules and then into veins. The blood is then pumped back to the lungs, where it releases carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen to begin the process again.
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This organ is the major organ involved in digestion and absorption:
A. Stomach
B. Small intestine
C. Large intestine
D. Mouth
The duodenum, jejunum, and ileum are the three sections that make up the small intestine. Chime from the stomach, as well as digestive substances from the pancreas and liver, are sent to the duodenum. The majority of chemical digestion and absorption takes place in the jejunum.
90% of food digestion and absorption takes place in the small intestine, with the remaining 10% occurring in the stomach and large intestine. Food must be mixed, moved through the digestive system, and chemically broken down into smaller molecules in order to be digested. When we chew and swallow, the digestive process begins. It is finished in the small intestine when nutrients are digested and absorbed.
The digestive system includes the small intestine, which links the stomach to the large intestine.
The duodenum, jejunum, and ileum are the three separate segments that make up this organ.
Digestive fluids from the pancreas, gallbladder, and liver are produced in the duodenum to aid in chemical digestion.
The muscles found in the jejunum's walls churn the meal and aid in digestion.
Nutrient absorption involves the mucosal lining of the jejunum and ileum.
Proteins and carbs are absorbed here to a maximum of 95%. The small intestine is where 90% of water is also absorbed.
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In which type of classification system are names assigned only to groups that include a common ancestor and all of its descendants?A. a system that groups organisms based solely on similar morphologiesB. a system that groups organisms based on similar roles in the environmentC. a system based entirely on evolutionary historyD. a system based solely on cellular structures
Names are only given to groups that have a common ancestor and all of their descendants, or under a system that is solely based on evolutionary history.
Only groups with a common ancestor and all of their descendants are given names in what kind of classification system?A monophyletic taxon is one that contains the most recent common ancestor of a collection of organisms as well as all of its offspring [as in (a)]. These groups are sometimes referred to as holophyletic.
Additionally, a taxon that includes the most recent common ancestor but not all of its descendants may be considered paraphyletic [as in (c)]. One who does not include the common ancestor of all members of the taxon is said to be polyphyletic [as in (b)].
Mammalia and Aves, which are recognised as all having feathers or fur, are examples of well-known monophyletic taxa. Pisces and Reptilia are two examples of paraphyletic taxa. Pisces includes all ray-finned fish but excludes terrestrial descendants of fleshy-finned fish, and Reptilia includes all scaly tetrapods but includes mammals and birds without their modified scales.
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