the permian triassic extinction occured approximatley --- million years ago and was associated with -----

Cytokines are small proteins produced naturally by white blood cells and tissue cells that play an important role in the body's immune system.

These proteins are responsible for coordinating and regulating the immune response to invading organisms and damaged cells. They are also involved in the communication between cells of the immune system, helping to ensure a proper and effective response to threats. Cytokines are divided into two main types: pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory. Pro-inflammatory cytokines are released in response to infection or injury and help to activate the immune response and recruit other immune cells to the site of infection. Anti-inflammatory cytokines help to reduce inflammation and promote tissue healing. Cytokines are also essential for the development and maintenance of the immune system.

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A possible outcome of sulfur persisting in coal due to amino acids in living organisms is that when coal is burned, sulfur dioxide is released into the atmosphere.

This can lead to acid rain, which can harm plants, animals, and infrastructure. Additionally, sulfur dioxide is a contributor to air pollution and can have negative effects on human health. The presence of sulfur in coal is due to the fact that the original organisms that formed the coal had sulfur-containing amino acids in their bodies. As these organisms died and were buried, heat and pressure over millions of years transformed them into the coal we use today. However, the sulfur from their amino acids remained in the coal.

When coal is burned, the sulfur in the coal reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide gas. This gas can then react with water vapor in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid, which falls to the earth as acid rain. Acid rain can lower the pH of soil, making it difficult for plants to grow, and can also harm aquatic ecosystems.

The release of sulfur dioxide from burning coal is a major contributor to air pollution, particularly in areas where coal-fired power plants are common. Sulfur dioxide can react with other pollutants in the air to form small particles, which can be harmful to human health when inhaled. These particles can exacerbate respiratory problems such as asthma and can even contribute to heart disease.

To address these negative outcomes, regulations have been put in place in many countries to limit the amount of sulfur dioxide that can be emitted from coal-fired power plants. Technologies such as scrubbers can also be used to remove sulfur dioxide from the emissions before they are released into the atmosphere.

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The reason for the higher prevalence of the recessive allele for sickle cell anemia in regions of Africa where malaria is prevalent, compared to regions where there is no malaria, is due to natural selection.

Natural selection is the process by which certain traits or alleles become more common in a population over time, based on their advantages for survival and reproduction. In the case of sickle cell anemia, individuals who carry one copy of the recessive allele are more resistant to malaria, which is a common and deadly disease in many parts of Africa. Therefore, these individuals are more likely to survive and pass on their genes, resulting in a higher prevalence of the sickle cell allele in populations with high malaria rates. However, individuals who inherit two copies of the recessive allele (one from each parent) will develop sickle cell anemia, which can be a debilitating and life-threatening condition.

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The fact that frogs, birds, snakes, and rodents have the same basic internal organs like kidneys, stomach, heart, and lungs is primarily an example of structural homology.

Structural homology refers to the presence of similar structures in different species that have evolved from a common ancestor. In this case, the common ancestor of these species had these internal organs, and over time, they have evolved to suit the specific needs of each species.

The similarity of these organs in different species is due to their shared ancestry, rather than convergent evolution.
The presence of homologous structures like these organs also supports the theory of evolution, as it suggests that species have diverged over time from a common ancestor. It is worth noting that homology can also refer to developmental homology, which is the presence of similar developmental pathways or stages in different species. However, in this case, the question is specifically asking about the presence of similar internal organs, which is an example of structural homology.

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Answer:

Using the t-table, give the confidence coefficients (t-value) for each of the following:

a. n =12, 99% confidence

b. n = 23, 95% confidence

2. Assuming that the samples comes from normal distributions, find the margin of error, E given the following:

a. n =18, x=78.3, s = 2.5, 95% confidence

b. n = 28, x=90.8, s = 2.8, 99% confidence

Solve the following problems.

3. A random sample of 12 students in a certain dormitory has an average weekly expenses of Php400 for snacks, with a standard deviation of Php12.50. Construct a 90% confidence interval for the amount spent on snacks, assuming the expenses are normally distributed.

4. A quality controller wants to estimate the proportion of high-quality goods out of a batch of products with a 90% confidence level and a margin of error of 5%. How many products must he test?

5. Given a sample size n = 12, sample mean of 120 ml and sample standard deviation of 6. The parent population is normally distributed. Find the error E and the interval estimate of the population mean μ.

Independent assortment and allele segregation occur during meiosis, leading to genetic variation. For a parent's genotype with 2 traits, 4 gamete possibilities are produced.

Independent assortment and allele segregation are essential processes during meiosis that contribute to genetic variation.

Independent assortment refers to the random distribution of chromosomes to daughter cells during meiosis, ensuring that each gamete receives a unique set of genetic information.

Allele segregation is the separation of alleles for each trait, allowing them to independently combine with other alleles from another parent during fertilization.

For a parent's genotype with 2 traits, there are 4 gamete possibilities (2 possibilities for each trait), generated through the combination of the different alleles from each trait.

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The DNA content of a single cell at metaphase of meiosis II would be X.

In meiosis I, a diploid cell with DNA content X replicates its DNA during the S phase, resulting in two sister chromatids per chromosome, and enters meiosis I with a DNA content of 2X. During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair up, exchange genetic material through crossing over, and segregate into two haploid daughter cells, each with a DNA content of X.

These daughter cells then enter meiosis II, where each chromosome, composed of two sister chromatids, segregates into two separate daughter cells. Therefore, each daughter cell at metaphase of meiosis II has a DNA content of X, since each chromosome now consists of only one chromatid. Thus, the DNA content of a single cell at metaphase of meiosis II would be X.

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The correct question is:

According to question 4: (If the DNA content of a diploid cell in the G1 phase of the cell cycle is X, then the DNA content of the same cell at metaphase of meiosis I would be 2X)

5. If we continued to follow the cell lineage from question 4, then the DNA content of a single cell at metaphase of meiosis II would be:

Mendel's focus on pea genes was pivotal in establishing the science of genetics because it allowed Mendel to formulate basic laws of inheritance.

Mendel's focus on pea genes was pivotal in establishing the science of genetics because it allowed Mendel to formulate basic laws of inheritance. Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who conducted experiments on pea plants in the mid-19th century, and through his work, he discovered the fundamental principles of genetics.

Mendel chose to work with pea plants because they are easy to grow, have a short generation time, and produce large numbers of offspring. He studied seven traits of the pea plant, including seed color, seed shape, and flower color, and observed how these traits were passed down from generation to generation.

Through his experiments, Mendel formulated the laws of segregation and independent assortment, which describe how traits are inherited from parents to offspring. These laws form the basis of modern genetics and have implications for fields such as medicine, agriculture, and evolutionary biology.

By focusing on pea genes, Mendel was able to establish the science of genetics and lay the foundation for future research in the field.

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Diploid somatic cells refer to the cells that make up the majority of an organism's body, containing two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.

Elephants have 56 chromosomes in their diploid somatic cells. During meiosis, the process of cell division that produces gametes (sperm and eggs), chromosomes are separated and distributed among the resulting cells. However, in the case of nondisjunction, the chromosomes fail to separate correctly, resulting in gametes with an abnormal number of chromosomes.  If nondisjunction occurs in meiosis II of an elephant's sperm-producing cells, the resulting sperm will have an abnormal chromosome complement. In this scenario, the diploid somatic cells will contain 56 chromosomes, but the sperm will have either 55 or 57 chromosomes.

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The common reaction of two cysteine residues in proteins results in the formation of a "disulfide bond" or "disulfide bridge".

Cysteine is an amino acid that contains a thiol group (-SH) in its side chain. Under certain conditions, two cysteine residues in a protein can undergo oxidation, where the thiol groups of two cysteine residues react with each other to form a covalent bond called a disulfide bond.

The reaction involves the oxidation of the thiol groups to form a disulfide (-S-S-) linkage, resulting in the formation of a bridge between the two cysteine residues.

Disulfide bonds play an important role in the stabilization of protein structure, as they can form strong covalent links that help to maintain the three-dimensional shape of a protein.

Disulfide bonds can also be involved in protein-protein interactions, protein folding, and protein stability. The formation and breaking of disulfide bonds are reversible processes and can be influenced by cellular redox conditions, enzymes, and other factors.

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Looking at the data in the table, this bacterial population is likely in the stationary phase between 20 and 24 hours.

This is because the live cell count remains relatively constant between 20 and 24 hours, indicating that the growth rate is equal to the death rate. This is characteristic of the stationary phase, which is the phase where the growth rate slows down and the population reaches a maximum sustainable density. During the stationary phase, the bacterial growth rate slows down and the number of viable cells reaches a plateau due to a balance between cell division and cell death. In other words, the number of new cells being produced is roughly equal to the number of cells dying. Therefore, the bacterial population is likely in the stationary phase between 20 and 24 hours.

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In the late 1990s, it was discovered that humans were contracting a(n) variant form of CJD after ingesting meat from cattle that had been afflicted by bovine spongiform encephalopathy.

Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD) is a rare, degenerative, fatal brain disorder that was first described in the United Kingdom in the 1990s. vCJD belongs to a group of diseases called transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), which include other diseases such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle (also known as “mad cow disease”). The human form of the disease is believed to be caused by consumption of meat products contaminated with the infectious agent that causes BSE.

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An irreversible process of deterioration in the body's systems, where the process of death is gradual depending on resistance to the lack of oxygen, is known as hypoxia.

This condition can lead to organ failure and, ultimately, death if not addressed in a timely manner. The process of deterioration in the body's systems is often irreversible, and in some cases, it can lead to death. This deterioration can be caused by a variety of factors, including a lack of oxygen to the body's tissues. As the body's organs and tissues begin to suffer from oxygen deprivation, they can begin to break down and function less efficiently. This process of deterioration can be gradual, and the speed at which it occurs depends on a variety of factors, including the individual's overall health and resistance to the lack of oxygen. Ultimately, the lack of oxygen can lead to irreversible damage to the body's systems, which can ultimately result in death.

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The deep layer is the reticular layer, which forms a thick layer of dense connective tissue that forms the bulk of the dermis.

Tissue is a collection of cells with similar structures that work together as a unit. The intercellular matrix is a nonliving substance that fills the spaces between the cells. This may be plentiful in some tissues while being scarce in others.

Tissue is classified into four types:

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By aggregating long-chain fats into mixed micelles, which are then accessible to water and digestive enzymes, bile salts aid in the digestion of fats, cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamins. Bile once more facilitates this procedure.

In order for fats to be absorbed, they must be close enough to the microvilli of intestinal cells to be surrounded by micelles, which are structures made of bile salts that form a cluster around the byproducts of fat digestion.In the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), bile salts (BS) are bio-surfactants that are essential for nutritional digestion and absorption.

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Adult stem cells have more limited differentiation potential compared to embryonic stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, which means they have the potential to differentiate into any cell type in the body. Adult stem cells, on the other hand, are multipotent, meaning they can only differentiate into a limited number of cell types.

To make adult stem cells more versatile, they can be modified through a process called reprogramming. Reprogramming involves inducing the expression of genes that are normally active in embryonic stem cells, which can then allow the adult stem cells to differentiate into a wider range of cell types.Therefore, the statement that adult stem cells are not as successful as embryonic stem cells unless they are modified is true because of the difference in their differentiation potential.

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The amount of DNA in a human individual is truly staggering - with 1011 cells, each containing about 6 x 109 nucleotide pairs, the total amount of DNA in a human individual adds up to over 6 x 1020 nucleotide pairs.

To calculate the length of the double helix that could be formed from this amount of DNA, we need to consider the structure of DNA itself. DNA is a double-stranded molecule made up of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine). The two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nitrogenous bases (adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine).  The length of a DNA molecule is usually measured in base pairs (bp), which refers to the number of nucleotide pairs in the molecule. It is estimated that each turn of the DNA helix contains about 10 base pairs, and the distance between each base pair is about 0.34 nanometers.

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Serological methods rely on the specificity of an antibody-antigen interaction and are useful in identifying unknown bacteria.

These methods may be simple and rapid, but they do not use cellular proteins and carbohydrates as markers. Instead, they use specific antibodies that bind to the antigens on the surface of the bacteria, allowing for their identification.

Serological methods are useful in identifying unknown bacteria (A), rely on the specificity of an antibody-antigen interaction (B), may be simple and rapid (C), and use cellular proteins and carbohydrates as markers (D).

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In an experiment where one-third as much enzyme and twice as much substrate had been combined, it would take a longer amount of time for the same amount of product to be formed compared to the original experiment.

This is because enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur. In this case, having less enzyme would result in a slower reaction rate. The rate of an enzymatic reaction depends on several factors, including the concentration of the enzyme and substrate, the temperature, and the pH. In this particular case, the decreased enzyme concentration and increased substrate concentration would result in a lower reaction rate.

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Para-amino hippuric acid (PAH) is used under clinical conditions to estimate and assess healthy kidney clearance function because it is a substance that is almost completely cleared from the blood by the kidneys and is not secreted or reabsorbed.

PAH is a substance that is filtered by the glomerulus and then actively secreted by the tubular cells into the tubular fluid.

Therefore, the amount of PAH that is filtered is equal to the amount that is secreted, making it a reliable marker for renal plasma flow (RPF) and, indirectly, for the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). By measuring the amount of PAH that is filtered and excreted in the urine, clinicians can determine the rate at which the kidneys are able to clear the blood of this substance.

This information can be used to evaluate the overall health of the kidneys and to diagnose conditions that may affect kidney function, such as kidney disease or hypertension. Additionally, because PAH is not reabsorbed by the kidneys, it provides a more accurate measure of renal function than other substances that may be partially reabsorbed or secreted. Overall, PAH is a valuable tool in clinical settings for assessing kidney function and diagnosing kidney-related conditions.

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The terminator nucleotides, on the other hand, lack a hydroxyl group at the 3' end, which is needed for the polymerase to continue adding nucleotides.

To determine the first 7 nucleotides of your DNA fragment using the Sanger sequencing method, follow these steps:

1. Label four tubes, each representing one of the four terminator nucleotides (A, T, C, and G).
2. Add your DNA template, primers, polymerase, and regular nucleotides to each tube.
3. Add a specific terminator nucleotide (ddATP, ddTTP, ddCTP, or ddGTP) to each corresponding tube (A, T, C, and G).
4. Allow the DNA replication process to occur, which will create various lengths of DNA fragments in each tube. The fragments will end at the point where the terminator nucleotide was incorporated.
5. Separate the resulting DNA fragments using gel electrophoresis, with each lane corresponding to one of the four terminator nucleotides.
6. Read the gel from the bottom to the top, noting the order of the terminator nucleotides in the fragments.
7. The order of the terminator nucleotides will give you the first 7 nucleotides of the complementary DNA strand. Remember to convert it back to the original DNA sequence by pairing it with its complementary base (A with T, and C with G).

By following these steps, you will be able to determine the first 7 nucleotides of your DNA fragment.

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If separase is unable to cleave cohesin, the most likely outcome is that the sister chromatids will remain attached to each other even after the onset of anaphase. This will prevent the proper separation of chromosomes and ultimately result in aneuploidy, a condition where cells have an abnormal number of chromosomes.

Aneuploidy can lead to various genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome, and can also cause cancer. The failure of sister chromatid separation during cell division is a critical step in the development of cancer, as it can lead to the accumulation of genetic abnormalities that promote tumor formation. Therefore, a mutation in separase that disrupts its ability to cleave cohesin can have serious consequences for the normal functioning of cells.

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Bacteria, pollen, and transplanted tissue are examples of foreign antigens. Foreign antigens are substances that are recognized as non-self by the immune system, triggering an immune response. When foreign antigens, such as bacteria or pollen, enter the body, the immune system produces specific proteins called antibodies to neutralize or eliminate them.

Pyrogens, on the other hand, are substances that can induce a fever. They can be produced by microorganisms like bacteria or by the host's immune system in response to an infection or inflammation. Pyrogens are not classified as foreign antigens, but they can be related to the immune response against them.

In contrast, self-antigens are molecules found on the surface of the body's own cells. They are recognized as self by the immune system and do not trigger an immune response. Foreign antibodies are antibodies produced in response to foreign antigens, whereas chemotactic chemicals are substances that attract immune cells to a specific site, like the site of an infection.

In summary, bacteria, pollen, and transplanted tissue are examples of foreign antigens that can trigger an immune response, while pyrogens are fever-inducing substances related to the immune response but not classified as antigens themselves.

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Chylomicrons are lipoproteins made of dietary fat surrounded by a shell of cholesterol, phospholipids, and protein; their role is to transport fat that has been absorbed from the GI tract.

Chylomicrons are the lipoproteins responsible for transporting dietary fat.  Chylomicrons are formed in the small intestine after absorption of dietary fat and are transported via the lymphatic system to the bloodstream where they can deliver the fat to cells throughout the body. Chylomicrons are responsible for transporting fats that have been absorbed from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract to various tissues in the body, such as adipose tissue, muscle, and liver, where they are either stored or used for energy production.

To sum up, chylomicrons are the lipoproteins that play a crucial role in transporting dietary fats absorbed from the GI tract throughout the body.

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According to the textbook, Cuvier addressed the comparative anatomy of fossils in a theory of life changes called Catastrophism.

In this theory, Cuvier proposed that sudden and catastrophic events, such as natural disasters, caused the extinction of species and the appearance of new ones. He used the comparative anatomy of fossils to support his claims, showing significant differences between extinct species and those living today.

Cuvier's approach to comparative anatomy was to carefully analyze the anatomical structures of fossils and compare them to living organisms to determine which species had become extinct due to these catastrophic events. He believed that each catastrophic event had caused the extinction of multiple species, which were then replaced by new species that migrated into the area.

Therefore,  This approach was in contrast to the idea of evolution, which proposes that species gradually change over time due to natural selection and other factors.

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Answer:

muscles d d grandfather. f f ff s f. g d ner t t t. f r

The animals that would best help the soil hold water by preventing soil compaction and increasing water-holding capacity are earthworms and other burrowing creatures.

Earthworms, for example, create tunnels in the soil as they move through it, which helps improve aeration, water infiltration, and overall soil structure. This prevents the soil from packing down over time and increases its ability to hold water.  Additionally, their waste products can help to enrich the soil and make it more fertile.

Similarly, other burrowing animals like moles, voles, and certain insects can also contribute to maintaining good soil structure.

In summary, animals like earthworms and other burrowing creatures help the soil hold water by preventing it from packing down over time and improving its overall structure.

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In order to understand the genotypes of parents and offspring as well as the genetic makeup of the gametes, we can apply Mendel's Law of Segregation.

Mendel's Law of Segregation states that during the formation of gametes (sperm and egg), each parent's two alleles (versions of a gene) for a particular trait separate, and each gamete receives only one allele. This means that offspring inherit one allele from each parent, resulting in their own unique genotype.

For example, let's consider a trait with two possible alleles, A and a. If the genotypes of the two parents are Aa and Aa, we can predict the possible genotypes of their offspring using a Punnett square.

Step 1: Identify the alleles in the parents' genotypes (Aa and Aa).

Step 2: List the possible gametes that can be formed by each parent: Parent 1 - (A, a) and Parent 2 - (A, a).

Step 3: Create a Punnett square, and fill in the boxes by combining the gametes from both parents:

|---|---A-|---a-|
| A | AA | Aa |
| a | Aa | aa |

Step 4: Analyze the Punnett square to determine the offspring's genotypes. In this case, we can observe:
- 1 offspring with genotype AA
- 2 offspring with genotype Aa
- 1 offspring with genotype aa

To summarize, we can use Mendel's Law of Segregation to predict the genotypes of offspring by observing the genotypes of the parents and the possible genetic makeup of the gametes (sperm and egg). In this example, the genotypes of the parents were Aa and Aa, and the possible genetic makeup of their gametes was A or a. The offspring's genotypes were determined as AA, Aa, and aa.

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The aqueous humor is a clear fluid that is produced by the ciliary body in the eye. Here is the circulation of aqueous humor from the site of production to the site of reabsorption:

In summary, the aqueous humor is produced in the ciliary body, circulates through the posterior and anterior chambers of the eye, and is reabsorbed into the bloodstream via the scleral venous sinus.

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We would expect approximately 570 newborn babies out of a random population of 1,000 to be homozygous dominant (not carrying the allele) for sickle-cell anemia.

If 6.00% of the newborn babies in a certain African country have sickle-cell anemia, which is a recessive trait, then the frequency of the recessive allele causing sickle-cell anemia (q) can be calculated using the following formula:

q = square root of (0.06)

q = 0.245

Since sickle-cell anemia is a recessive trait, the frequency of the dominant allele (p) can be calculated by subtracting the frequency of the recessive allele (q) from 1:

p = 1 - q

p = 0.755

Using the Hardy-Weinberg equation, we can calculate the expected proportion of carriers in the population:

2pq + [tex]p^{2}[/tex]+ [tex]q^{2}[/tex]= 1

where:

[tex]p^{2}[/tex] is the frequency of homozygous dominant individuals (not carrying the allele)

[tex]q^{2}[/tex] is the frequency of homozygous recessive individuals (with sickle-cell anemia)

2pq is the frequency of heterozygous carriers

We know that q = 0.245, so:

2pq = 2(0.755)(0.245) = 0.369

[tex]p^{2}[/tex]= (0.755)² = 0.570

[tex]q^{2}[/tex] = (0.245)² = 0.060

Therefore, the expected proportion of individuals who are not carrying the allele (homozygous dominant) is [tex]p^{2}[/tex] = 0.570.

To find the number of individuals out of 1,000 newborn babies that are expected to be homozygous dominant (not carrying the allele), we can multiply the proportion by the total population:

0.570 x 1,000 = 570

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