Explain independent assortment and allele segregation. How many gamete possibilities are produced from a parents genotype with 2 traits

The arterial PO₂ in a person with anemia will be lower than the arterial PO₂ in a person with a normal hemoglobin concentration.

This is because anemia is a condition in which the number of red blood cells and/or the amount of hemoglobin in the blood is lower than normal. As hemoglobin is a protein responsible for carrying oxygen through the body, having fewer red blood cells and/or less hemoglobin means that less oxygen is transported throughout the body.

Having less oxygen in the blood leads to a decreased arterial PO₂. When the arterial PO₂ is lower the body is not receiving the necessary oxygen to function properly, leading to the common symptoms of anemia such as fatigue, shortness of breath, and lightheadedness.

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Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) takes advantage of a special heat-resistant form of DNA polymerase in order to make DNA copies.

The most commonly used heat-resistant DNA polymerase for PCR is Taq polymerase, which is derived from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus found in hot springs. This polymerase is able to withstand the high temperatures required for the denaturation step of PCR, which involves separating the two strands of DNA. The heat-resistant nature of Taq polymerase makes it a crucial component of the PCR process, allowing for the amplification of DNA sequences.

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The success of invasive species is most commonly explained by the advantageous genes that provide characteristics that allow them to out-compete the established species.

These advantageous genes may allow the invasive species to exploit underutilized resources, grow more quickly, reproduce more efficiently, or resist diseases and predators better than the established species.

In some cases, the invasive species may also acquire traits that allow them to eliminate the established species, such as by releasing toxic chemicals or outcompeting them for resources.

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Telomeres and telomerase are increasingly thought to be key components of the aging process, providing a possible avenue to restrain cancer and delay aging.

Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences at the end of chromosomes that protect them from degradation and prevent fusion with other chromosomes.

Telomeres shorten with each round of cell division, and when they become critically short, the cell enters a state of senescence or undergoes programmed cell death (apoptosis).

Telomerase is an enzyme that can add telomeric repeats to the ends of chromosomes, thereby counteracting telomere shortening.

However, telomerase is usually only active in embryonic cells, stem cells, and certain types of cancer cells, and is turned off in most somatic cells.

Research has shown that telomere shortening and dysfunction contribute to various age-related diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Therefore, understanding the role of telomeres and telomerase in aging and disease may lead to new therapeutic strategies for preventing or treating age-related diseases.

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The primers needed to be added at a cooler temperature (50-65°C) to allow them to anneal specifically to the complementary sequence on the single-stranded DNA template. This specific annealing is crucial for the subsequent steps in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to occur.

At higher temperatures, the DNA strands are denatured and separated into single-stranded templates, which is necessary for PCR to work. However, at these high temperatures, the primers may not anneal specifically to the target sequence and may bind randomly to the single-stranded DNA template or form non-specific secondary structures. By reducing the temperature to 50-65°C, the primers are more likely to anneal specifically to the complementary sequence on the single-stranded DNA template, ensuring that the PCR amplifies the target sequence and not non-specific regions of the genome. This ensures the specificity of the reaction, allowing for the production of only the desired fragment of DNA.

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True, The nasopharynx is the uppermost part of the pharynx and is responsible for receiving air from the nose. From the nasopharynx, air flows into the trachea,

which is a tube-like structure that extends from the larynx to the bronchi in the lungs. The trachea is located dorsal, or posterior, to the esophagus, which is the muscular tube that carries food and liquids from the mouth to the stomach.

The trachea and esophagus are located in close proximity to each other in the neck and chest, and they share some of the same muscles and cartilage.

However, they are separate structures and have different functions. The trachea is responsible for delivering air to the lungs, while the esophagus is responsible for delivering food and liquids to the stomach. The proper function of both the trachea and esophagus is essential for maintaining proper respiratory and digestive health.

The trachea is the tube responsible for carrying air to and from the lungs, while the esophagus is the tube that transports food and liquids from the mouth to the stomach. These two structures run parallel to each other, with the trachea positioned in front of the esophagus.

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1a. The technique that is frequently used to demonstrate carbohydrate in tissue sections is the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) staining method. b. One tissue that could be used as a positive control for Part A is the liver, which is known to have high levels of glycogen (a type of carbohydrate).

c. The technique in Part A could also be used to demonstrate the presence of glycogen in cells.
2. The tissue should be oriented as follows:
- Gall bladder: longitudinally
- Vas deferens: cross-section
- Fallopian tube: cross-section
- Colon segment: transversely
- Femoral artery: cross-section
3. Match the technique to the elements they demonstrate:
a. Gomoris 1-Step Trichrome - III Collagen
b. Mallory PTAH - IV Cross striations, fibrin
c. Kinyouns Carbol Fuchsin - I AFB
d. Cresyl Echt Violet - V Helicobacter pylori
4. Complete the following statements:
a. Ripening of hematoxylin is a process of increasing its staining ability by aging or exposure to air and light.
b. Bouins is both a fixative and a mordant.
c. Xylene is under the class of clearing agents.
5. The microtome commonly used in the histology laboratory is the rotary microtome.

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The transmissible agent of CJD, a prion, is able to alter a normal host protein, called a PrP protein. This causes a massive accumulation of altered proteins in the brain.

Prions are unique infectious agents that cause a variety of degenerative diseases in animals and humans, including Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD). Unlike other infectious agents such as bacteria or viruses, prions do not contain genetic material, but instead are composed of abnormally folded proteins that are able to convert normal proteins into the abnormal prion form.

In the case of CJD, the transmissible agent is a prion that alters a normal host protein, called PrP, by causing it to adopt the abnormal conformation. This altered protein then accumulates in the brain, leading to neuronal damage and the symptoms of the disease.

The accumulation of prions in the brain can also cause other normal PrP proteins to convert to the abnormal form, leading to a cycle of disease progression.

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The two major neurotransmitters released by the autonomic nervous system (ANS) neurons are acetylcholine (ACh) and norepinephrine (NE), also known as noradrenaline.

ACh is the primary neurotransmitter released by the preganglionic neurons of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS. It also acts as the postganglionic neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic division. NE is primarily released by postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic division.

These two neurotransmitters have different effects on target organs. ACh generally has a stimulatory effect on the target organ, while NE has a mostly inhibitory effect. The balance between the two determines the overall response of the target organ to ANS activation.

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Most carbon dioxide is carried from the body tissues to the lungs in two ways. as bicarbonate ions (HCO3 -) combined with hemoglobin by the trachea as hydrogen ions (H ) dissolved in blood plasma

This process is known as the bicarbonate buffer system and is the main form of carbon dioxide transport. The second form involves the dissolution of hydrogen ions (H⁺) into the blood plasma. This process is known as the dissolved form. Both of these methods are important for the removal of carbon dioxide from the body tissues and its delivery to the lungs.

The bicarbonate buffer system is a very efficient way to transport carbon dioxide, as it combines with hemoglobin and is carried to the lungs. As the hemoglobin binds to carbon dioxide, it carries the gas to the lungs, where it is then exhaled. The dissolved form is also important for the removal of carbon dioxide from the body tissues.

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Complete question is :-

Most carbon dioxide is carried from the body tissues to the lungs. as bicarbonate ions (HCO3 -) combined with hemoglobin by the trachea as hydrogen ions (H ) dissolved in blood plasma. EXPLAIN.

Sodium ions are actively reabsorbed from the renal tubules into the bloodstream, creating an osmotic gradient that draws water molecules out of the tubules and back into the body.

The process is essential for maintaining fluid balance and preventing dehydration. The electrical gradient is also created by the movement of sodium ions, which carry a positive charge. As they move out of the tubules, they create a negative charge within the tubules, which attracts positively charged ions like potassium and magnesium.

That helps to maintain the body's electrolyte balance and supports proper muscle and nerve function. While insulin and glucose are important for regulating blood sugar levels, they do not play a direct role in creating the osmotic and electrical gradients that drive water and solute reabsorption in the kidneys. Iron is not actively reabsorbed in the kidneys and is instead excreted in the urine.

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Sodium ions are actively reabsorbed from the renal tubules into the bloodstream, creating an osmotic gradient that draws water molecules out of the tubules and back into the body.

The process is essential for maintaining fluid balance and preventing dehydration.

The electrical gradient is also created by the movement of sodium ions, which carry a positive charge.

As they move out of the tubules, they create a negative charge within the tubules, which attracts positively charged ions like potassium and magnesium.

That helps to maintain the body's electrolyte balance and supports proper muscle and nerve function.

While insulin and glucose are important for regulating blood sugar levels, they do not play a direct role in creating the osmotic and electrical gradients that drive water and solute reabsorption in the kidneys.

Iron is not actively reabsorbed in the kidneys and is instead excreted in the urine.

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Researchers can perform a series of tests that assess the characteristics of the cells. Here are some of the tests they might use:

Researchers are individuals who engage in systematic investigation, analysis, and interpretation of data to generate new knowledge and understanding of various fields of study. They use scientific methods, theories, and tools to conduct experiments, collect data, and analyze results.

Researchers can work in a variety of settings, including universities, research institutions, government agencies, private companies, and non-profit organizations. They may specialize in a particular field, such as biology, psychology, physics, or computer science, or they may work across disciplines to address complex issues. Researchers play a critical role in advancing knowledge and solving problems in fields ranging from healthcare to technology to environmental science.

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The accumulating data from biogeography, comparative morphology, and fossil discoveries led early naturalists to propose that species evolve over time through a process of natural selection.

The accumulating data from biogeography, comparative morphology, and fossil discoveries led early naturalists to propose that species evolve.
In this context, the term "evolve" indicates the process of change in species over time due to various factors such as genetic variation, environmental changes, and adaptation. Early naturalists utilized the information gathered from biogeography (distribution of species on Earth), comparative morphology (studying the similarities and differences in the structures of organisms), and fossil discoveries to support the idea of species evolution.

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The first step of a PCR cycle is denaturing the double-stranded DNA into single-stranded DNA. DNA denaturation during a PCR reaction is accomplished by Raising the temperature , Maintaining the temperature for a specific duration,  Cooling the mixture.

1. Raising the temperature: The PCR reaction mixture is heated to a high temperature, typically between 94°C to 98°C. This breaks the hydrogen bonds holding the two strands of DNA together, causing them to separate and form single-stranded DNA.

2. Maintaining the temperature for a specific duration: The high temperature is maintained for a short period, usually around 15-30 seconds, to ensure complete separation of the DNA strands.

3. Cooling the mixture: In the next step of the PCR cycle, the temperature is lowered to allow primers to bind to the single-stranded DNA, which initiates the DNA synthesis process. This is known as annealing.

By following these steps, DNA denaturation is successfully accomplished during a PCR reaction, allowing for the amplification of the target DNA sequence.

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Red sea urchin and purple sea urchin are unable to mate and produce offspring due to their incompatible gametes, an example of prezygotic reproductive isolation. This helps to maintain the genetic integrity of each species and can be caused by various factors.

In this case, the red sea urchin and purple sea urchin are reproductively isolated because their gametes are incompatible, meaning that the sperm of one species cannot fertilize the eggs of the other species.

This ensures that hybrid offspring are not produced, which helps to maintain the genetic integrity of each species. Prezygotic isolation can also be caused by other factors, such as differences in mating behavior, geographic barriers, or temporal isolation (mating at different times).

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A hyperactivation mutation in p53 would result in the excessive and uncontrolled activation of p53, leading to an increased level of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis.

Apoptosis is a natural process of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms. It plays a crucial role in development, maintenance of tissue homeostasis, and elimination of damaged or unnecessary cells.

Hyperactivation mutation refers to a genetic alteration that results in the increased activity of a protein or pathway, leading to abnormal cell behavior and potential disease development.

According to the given information:

A hyperactivation mutation in p53 would result in the excessive and uncontrolled activation of p53, leading to an increased level of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. This would result in the prevention of the formation and progression of tumors in the body, as p53 plays a crucial role in regulating the cell cycle and preventing the growth and division of abnormal cells. However, it is important to note that excessive activation of p53 can also lead to negative effects on normal cells and tissues, resulting in various health problems.

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Locust trees are indeed very common leguminous trees in our region. They are known for their beautiful, fragrant flowers and strong, durable wood. However, they are also susceptible to a condition known as leaf scorch, which can cause them to turn brown and become discolored in mid- to late-summer.

Leaf scorch is often caused by a combination of factors, including high temperatures, low moisture levels, and poor soil conditions. While it can be unsightly, it usually does not cause long-term damage to the tree. If you notice that your locust tree is turning brown or becoming discolored, it is important to take steps to improve its growing conditions, such as watering it regularly and fertilizing it with a balanced fertilizer.
Hi! Locust trees are indeed common leguminous trees in many regions. The reason these trees often turn brown and become discolored in mid- to late-summer is due to a combination of factors, including seasonal changes, stress, and potential pest or disease issues. As the season progresses, the trees may shed older leaves to conserve resources, resulting in a brown appearance. Additionally, stress from heat, drought, or poor soil conditions can cause discoloration. Lastly, pests or diseases such as locust leaf miners or canker infections may also contribute to the brown appearance of locust trees during this time.

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The DNA found in most bacterial cells is circular in structure.

DNA is organized into a compact structure called a nucleoid.

Bacterial chromosomes are composed of a circular DNA molecule that is not associated with histones or enclosed within a nuclear membrane. Instead, the DNA is organized into a compact structure called a nucleoid, which is held together by various proteins and supercoiling. Bacteria also have other genetic elements such as plasmids, which are smaller circular DNA molecules that replicate independently from the bacterial chromosome. The circular nature of bacterial DNA allows for efficient and rapid replication, transcription, and translation, which are essential for bacterial growth and survival. The study of bacterial genetics and genomics has important implications for fields such as microbiology, biotechnology, and medicine.

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The muscle that is the antagonist for forearm extension of the arm at the elbow joint in the shoulder elbow movement lab is d) triceps brachii.

In the shoulder elbow movement lab, the triceps brachii muscle is responsible for extending the forearm at the elbow joint. This muscle is located on the back of the upper arm and is a three-headed muscle that inserts into the ulna bone of the forearm. During forearm extension, the triceps brachii contracts and shortens, pulling on the ulna bone to straighten the arm. The antagonist muscle to the triceps brachii during forearm extension is the biceps brachii muscle, which is located on the front of the upper arm. The biceps brachii contracts during forearm flexion, pulling on the radius bone of the forearm to bend the arm. These muscles work together in a coordinated fashion to allow for a wide range of movements at the elbow joint.

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Both DNA sequences contribute to the increase in transcription rate by acting as regulatory elements that recruit specific transcription factors. These factors recognize and bind to specific sequences, promoting the assembly of the transcription machinery and enhancing the transcription process.

In both cases, the presence of the DNA sequences facilitates the recruitment of RNA polymerase and other accessory proteins, such as activators, which can further stimulate the transcription rate. Additionally, the sequences may also serve as binding sites for repressor proteins, which can inhibit transcription. The balance between these regulatory factors determines the overall transcription rate, with increased binding of activators resulting in enhanced transcription.
Furthermore, the DNA sequences might be involved in the formation of specific chromatin structures that expose the promoter region to the transcription machinery, thus increasing the rate of transcription. This can involve changes in the nucleosome positioning or modifications to histone proteins, affecting the accessibility of the DNA to the transcription factors.
In summary, the two DNA sequences share similarities in their roles as regulatory elements that modulate transcription rate by recruiting transcription factors, promoting the assembly of the transcription machinery, and influencing chromatin structure. Through these mechanisms, both sequences can effectively increase the rate of transcription.

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The term used to refer to a cell membrane across which there is a separation of electrical charge, so that one side is more positive and the other side is more negative is "membrane potential."

Membrane potential is a fundamental concept in the study of physiology and neuroscience, as it plays a crucial role in many cellular processes such as nerve signaling and muscle contraction. The potential difference across the membrane arises from the distribution of charged ions on either side of the membrane and their selective permeability through ion channels.

What is potential difference?

Potential difference, also known as voltage, is the difference in electrical potential between two points in an electrical circuit or field.

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The structures of the head and neck develop from a complex series of embryonic structures.

The myotomes, dermatomes, and sclerotomes are structures derived from the somites, which are blocks of mesoderm that form along the length of the body during early development. These structures contribute to the formation of the muscles and bones of the head and neck.

The otic and lens placodes are thickened areas of the ectoderm that contribute to the formation of the inner ear and the lens of the eye. The pharyngeal arches, clefts and pouches are structures that form from the endoderm and mesoderm of the developing pharynx and contribute to the formation of facial structures, including the jaw and throat.

The oropharyngeal membrane is a transient structure that develops between the mouth and pharynx and contributes to the formation of the palate.

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During sustained aerobic exercise, there is an increased demand for oxygen and nutrients by the working muscles. To meet this increased demand, the heart needs to pump more blood and at a faster rate, resulting in an increase in mean arterial pressure (MAP).

Arterial baroreceptors are specialized sensory receptors located in the walls of certain arteries, such as the carotid sinus and aortic arch. They respond to changes in arterial pressure by increasing or decreasing their firing rate, which is transmitted to the brainstem and influences the activity of the autonomic nervous system.

In the case of sustained aerobic exercise, the body anticipates the need for increased blood flow to the muscles and initiates a feedforward response to reduce the sensitivity of the arterial baroreceptors. This reduces the magnitude of their firing rate in response to the increased MAP, allowing for a greater increase in blood flow to the muscles without triggering a reflexive decrease in heart rate or vasodilation.

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Complete Question

While you are engaged in sustained aerobic exercise there is feedforward regulation of your arterial baroreceptors, such that their firing rate is much lower at any given MAP than it would be while you are at rest. Why does this make sense ?

The carrying capacity of a region refers to the number of people who can survive on the resources already available there. According to the available food, habitat, water, and other resources, a biological species' carrying capacity is the largest population size that can be supported by a given ecosystem. Hence (a) is the correct option.

The amount of visitors or visits a place can withstand without causing the natural resources to deteriorate is known as the ecological carrying capacity. A species' carrying capacity in a specific habitat is determined by its average population size. Environmental variables like sufficient food, shelter, water, and mates can serve as population limits for some animals. The population will decline if these needs are not addressed until the resource value increases.

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Secretin stimulates the pancreas to secrete bicarbonate.

Secretin is a hormone that is produced in the small intestine in response to acidic chyme (partially digested food) entering the stomach. When secretin is released, it travels to the pancreas and stimulates the pancreatic duct cells to secrete bicarbonate ions into the small intestine.

Bicarbonate helps to neutralize the acidic chyme, which protects the intestinal wall from damage and allows pancreatic enzymes to function optimally. This bicarbonate allows for optimal digestion and absorption of nutrients.

Secretin does not directly stimulate the secretion of pancreatic enzymes, disaccharidases in the small intestine, bicarbonate in the stomach, or liver enzymes.

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The main tissue types found in all vascular plants include the dermal tissue, which provides the main interface with the environment of the plant; the vascular tissue, which is specialized for transport of water or carbohydrates; and the ground tissue, which includes all the other cells.

Dermal tissue is the outermost layer of cells that covers the plant body and protects it from physical damage, water loss, and pathogens. Vascular tissue consists of two types of specialized cells, xylem and phloem, that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant. Ground tissue makes up the bulk of the plant body and performs various functions such as photosynthesis, storage of nutrients, and support. Together, these three tissue types play important roles in the growth, development, and survival of vascular plants.

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The lack of biodiversity due to fire suppression has a negative impact on California forests as it leads to an increase in fuel load, which can cause more intense and frequent fires.

Fire has always played a vital role in shaping California's ecosystems, and many plant and animal species are adapted to frequent low-intensity fires. However, due to fire suppression policies, the frequency and intensity of fires have increased in recent decades, resulting in the loss of biodiversity.

Fire suppression policies have resulted in an accumulation of dense undergrowth, dead trees, and fallen leaves, which have increased the fuel load, making fires more intense and harder to control. This has resulted in the loss of habitat for many plant and animal species and increased the risk of large-scale wildfires.

Biodiversity loss can also lead to a decline in ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration and water regulation, which are crucial for human well-being. Therefore, it is crucial to adopt management practices that mimic the natural fire regimes to restore biodiversity and maintain healthy forests.

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Flowering plants, like the ones we see today, have been around in abundance since 100 million years ago.

Abundance refers to the quantity or availability of something in a particular environment or ecosystem. It is a measure of the total number or biomass of individuals of a particular species or group of organisms in a given area. Abundance can be influenced by a variety of factors, including habitat suitability, resource availability, predation, competition, and environmental conditions such as temperature and precipitation.

Abundance is an important ecological concept that helps scientists understand the functioning of ecosystems and the distribution of species across different habitats. High levels of abundance can indicate a healthy ecosystem with a diverse array of species, while low abundance may suggest habitat degradation or other environmental disturbances.

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All of the following are functions of the kidneys except removal of worn out red blood cells and pathogens from the blood.

C is the correct option.

In addition to returning vitamins, amino acids, glucose, hormones, and other essential elements into the bloodstream, the kidneys also serve as very effective filters for removing waste and hazardous compounds from the body. High volumes of blood flow through highly specialised blood arteries filter the kidneys' high blood flow.

The kidney's main job is to filter blood, which leads to the production of urine. Urinary metabolic wastes including urea and uric acid are excreted by it. Erythropoietin, renin, and calcitriol are just a few of the hormones and enzymes it secretes.

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The complete question is:

All of the following are functions of the kidneys EXCEPT

A. assists in maintaining blood pH

B. helps to maintain blood pressure, volume, blood composition

C. removal of worn out red blood cells and pathogens from the blood

D. removal of wastes of metabolism from the blood

The modern term that best describes the property of an antimicrobial compound that lets it target bacteria while having little effect on humans is "selective toxicity".

This term refers to the ability of the compound to selectively target and eliminate bacteria, while sparing human cells and tissues from harm. This property is highly desirable in antimicrobial compounds, as it allows for effective treatment of bacterial infections without causing unnecessary harm to the patient.
The modern term that best describes the property of an antimicrobial compound that allows it to target bacteria while having little effect on humans is "selective toxicity."

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